The concept of aesthetic labor emanates from the general history of labor, especially emotional labor [1]. The term emotional labor was first introduced in the 1960s to describe the work done by flight attendants that required them to suppress their emotions and put up a smile to create a pleasing atmosphere for the customers [2]. Emotional labor is a demand of the job of frontline workers wherein they are expected to display certain emotions, e.g., happiness [3]. The concept of aesthetic labor was built on the concept of emotional labor [4]. The term aesthetic labor caught the attention of researchers in the 1990s. One study traces the evolution of labor right from the start of the industrial era and argues that labor has become more aestheticized in modern capitalist society [5]. The term aesthetic labor concerns the management of physical appearance and emotions in the workplace, especially in customer-facing or service jobs [6]. Aesthetic labor plays a key role in creative industries [7]. Moreover, aesthetic labor is the practice of assessing, supervising, and regulating employees based on their physical appearance [8]. Over the past two decades, the concept of aesthetic labor has gained increasing attention from scholars across multiple fields, including management, sociology, and psychology [9]. Researchers have explored the concept of aesthetic labor in relation to gender, race, and ethnicity and the impact of aesthetic labor on worker’s emotional well-being [10]. The concept is particularly of interest to the service, fashion, and retail industries, where workers are expected to manage their emotions and project a captivating physical appearance of themselves as part of their job [11].

This type of labor is becoming extremely prevalent nowadays due to the growth of the service economy, and it has been linked to several issues, such as objectification, gender, biases for certain jobs, stress, and burnout [12]. The emergence of aesthetic capabilities is indicative of the increasing significance of aesthetic labor in interactive services [13]. For example, employers increasingly demand their employees to have an appearance that they deem “right”, meaning that they “look good” and “sound right” in retail and hospitality service encounters [13].

Some organizations use aesthetic labor to differentiate their 'value propositions'; however, by concentrating on the physical appearance of their employees, they raise issues of sexualizing labor for commercial purposes [14]. Some industries, such as the entertainment industry, recruit people based on physical attributes, which results in bias toward those who do not fulfill the criteria of expected physical attributes, which may lead to stress and burnout [15].

Since 2012, research on “aesthetic labor” has acquired momentum due to its significance in the service industry. Aesthetic labor in the hotel industry influences consumer perceptions and satisfaction [16].

The significance of maintaining a professional appearance is emphasised by the fact that employee appearance mediates the relationship between aesthetic labor and service performance in the service business [17]. Employees are increasingly believed to be mouldable to reflect the organisational aesthetic [18]. Thus, it becomes an important concept to study and explore.

In recent years, aesthetic labor has received increasing attention, as it is a type of work that is becoming more prevalent in service industries. Such laborers are considered to have embodied capacities and attributes right at the time of their entry into the organisation. Such attributes are further enhanced, developed, and commodified by employers in a manner that aligns with the aesthetically pleasing desired image of the organization and thus impacts the service interaction positively [6]. The aesthetic component of interactive service work is gaining importance. This is reflected in both industrial sociology and organisation studies on the topic [19]. In recent times, even the definition of soft skills required in certain sectors, such as retail, has started including aesthetic labor [20].

This literature review is intended to provide an overview of the existing literature on aesthetic labor and critically evaluate its implications for organisations and employees. Seminal work by Hochschild depicts how an employee has to maintain an emotional image that is aligned with the employer’s or organisation’s image, and it can lead to exhaustion and emotional dissonance [2]. The study further establishes that an individual undertakes the effort in planning and controlling to display emotions that are desired by the organisation during one-on-one interactions with customers, and it can lead to burnout and job dissatisfaction [21]. The job demands that come with emotional labor may result in burnout [22]. However, this dissatisfaction can be mitigated if the workers are provided social support [23, 24]. It is further strengthened by a study that argues that those who can effectively regulate their emotions enjoy greater job satisfaction and experience less emotional exhaustion [25]. Aesthetic labor has quite a few implications for organisations. Emotional dissonance that comes with aesthetic labor, as it puts the extra burden on projecting a desirable physical self, depletes the emotional resources and results in turnover intentions [22]. Aesthetic labor also aids in a complex form of impression management. A study conducted on erotic dancers found that the dancer engages in extensive emotional and aesthetic labor to put up her ‘work self’ [26]. While the burden that aesthetic labor puts on the emotional makeup of employees is well established, a study segregated this burden into 3 dimensions: organisational requirements in terms of aesthetics, pressure exhibited by customer service, and burdens carried on in time of work [27].

Although job satisfaction is negatively related to aesthetic labor and positively related to turnover intentions, this relationship is moderated by customer orientation [28]. Aesthetic labor does have a positive impact on customer satisfaction. Customer satisfaction and loyalty are enhanced by both emotional labor and aesthetic labor [16]. Another reason why employers want to engage in aesthetic labor is social comparison theory, i.e., a general theory that establishes how consumers may react to service providers who appear more or less alike. To some extent, a similar appearance (i.e., having employees in uniform, maintaining the same hairstyle, etc.) is an effective aesthetic labor strategy insofar as it fosters feelings of genuine belonging [29]. A unique view on aesthetic labor is provided by a study that identifies three ways in which aesthetics are acknowledged to contribute to an organisation: aesthetics of an organisation, aesthetics in the organisation, and aesthetics as an organisation [18]. The study argues that employees are viewed not only as “software” but also as “hardware,” meaning that they can be modelled to reflect the organisational aesthetic. Furthermore, it has been well established by researchers that aesthetic labor is not just restricted to looking good, but it also encompasses sounding right [30, 31]. Thus, the phenomenon of aesthetic labor also encompasses the aural aspect.

How different cultural dimensions and country social values impact the perception of aesthetic labor is another area that has caught the attention of researchers. The study provided an international comparison of aesthetic labor in interactive service work, contending that the nature of this work differed between nations and industries [6]. It has been discovered that aesthetic labor has both positive as well as negative effects on employees. On the one hand, it can increase employees' job satisfaction and sense of self-worth because they can use their appearance to generate positive customer experiences [32]. On the other hand, employees who are required to use their appearance as a marketing instrument for the organisation may experience feelings of objectification and commodity [33]. In addition, aesthetic labor can reinforce existing gender and racial hierarchies since women and ethnic minorities are frequently required to perform more aesthetic labor than their male or white counterparts [34]. A study [35] highlighted the complexities faced by women, especially in the professions where appearance is paramount, in navigating between self-acceptance and societal pressures. Another study [36] identified decision-making orientation toward recruitment of aesthetically rich applicants, evidently seen in the Indian hospitality sector.

Lastly, the literature on aesthetic labor emphasises the need for additional study in this area. There is a lack of research on how employees in various contexts, such as non-Western countries or industries other than service work, experience aesthetic labor [6]. In addition, gendered and racialized aspects of aesthetic labor, as well as the impact of new technologies, such as social media and facial recognition, must be investigated further. By addressing these research voids, academics can gain a deeper comprehension of the complexities of aesthetic labor and its implications for organisations and employees.

Q1. What are the most influential articles on ‘aesthetic labor’?

Q2. How is the spread of research over the years?

Q3. What are the leading sources and countries as far as publications on ‘aesthetic labor’ are concerned?

Q4. What are the emerging themes in the area of ‘aesthetic labor’?

This paper is based on bibliometric analysis. Bibliometric analysis is a quantitative technique for analysing and quantifying the characteristics of scientific publications, such as journal articles, books, and conference proceedings [37]. This method strives to understand the connections between journal citations and summarise the current state of affairs in relation to an emerging research area. The data were retrieved from Scopus for this research. For analysis, a Visualization Of Similarities (VOS) viewer was used, which allowed visualization of bibliometric maps. This methodology enables us to efficiently collect the literature and identify the connections between selected publications and potential alternatives.

The keyword used in the Scopus database was “aesthetic labor”, which fetched 180 publications when the search was restricted to publications in social sciences, business, management and accounting, and psychology domains. The analysis was carried out on these 180 publications.

The received results were downloaded in CSV file format so that VOSviewer may process them and be used to visualise and analyse the bibliometric form's trends.

The findings of this research indicate that aesthetic labor is a significant aspect of work, particularly for employees who work in service-oriented jobs. Aesthetic labor involves not only the performance of job tasks but also the management of one's appearance, demeanour, and emotional expressions in a way that meets the expectations of the organization and its customers [2]. Our study has shown that employees who engage in aesthetic labor experience both positive and negative outcomes. On the positive side, employees who engage in aesthetic labor report a sense of pride in their appearance and work, and they often feel that their efforts lead to positive outcomes for the organization [55]. Additionally, they also feel that the way they present themselves at work is an expression of their identity, which can help them feel more authentic [56].

Fig. (4). Density of keywords. Source: VOSviewer.

Fig. (5). Publications by countries. Source: VOSviewer.

On the other hand, employees who engage in aesthetic labor may also experience negative outcomes. For instance, the need to present a certain appearance or demeanour can create a sense of inauthenticity [56], leading to emotional dissonance and exhaustion [15]. The pressure to manage their appearance can also create anxiety and stress for employees, leading to burnout [57]. Entwistle, J. and Wissinger, E [40]. highlighted that to keep up with the norms and to fully embody the concept, workers sometimes have to take extreme measures (such as dieting) as they not only have to keep up their appearance but also maintain it. Moreover, it is important to recognize that not all employees experience the same level of aesthetic labor, and this may be influenced by factors, such as gender, age, and race. For example, research has shown that women and people of color are often held to higher appearance standards than their male or white counterparts, leading to increased levels of aesthetic labor [58]. One more issue associated with aesthetic labor is ‘objectification’ or ‘commodification of oneself’. In the aesthetic labor context, objectification is largely associated with females [59], but Holla, S. M [60]. argued that it is done by both men and women and contended that objectification is socially rooted in institutions and particular situations. Aesthetic labor is also connected with individual traits. For example, individuals who have high levels of self-esteem may be better able to cope with the demands of aesthetic labor and may perceive it as an opportunity to express their individuality and creativity. On the other hand, individuals with low self-esteem may perceive aesthetic labor as a threat to their self-concept and may experience negative outcomes, such as anxiety and stress.

Organizations shall take note of the impact aesthetic labor can have on their employees and try to create a work environment that is supportive, caring and conducting for the employee’s wellbeing. There is a need for support and resources to help employees manage their appearance and emotions, as well as ensuring that appearance standards are fair and not discriminatory on the one hand. Training managers to recognize and address the negative outcomes of aesthetic labor, such as burnout and emotional dissonance, on the other hand, could be very fruitful. Thus, we may infer that aesthetic labor can have both positive as well as negative outcomes on employees. Therefore, organizations must monitor the implications of aesthetic labor on their employees and take apt steps to mitigate its negative effects. This can play a vital role in creating a cordial and harmonious work environment, a win-win situation for both the employee as well as the employer. Social media platforms, such as Instagram and TikTok, have come as a blessing in creating a culture of constant self-presentation, both in the workplace as well as the personal space. However, at the same time, it may lead to burnout and emotional exhaustion. So, the only way out is to implement policies and practices that promote employee well-being and mental health. Additionally, organizations can promote a diverse and inclusive culture, disregarding discrimination in terms of gender, age, or race.

Academics and policymakers must broaden their understanding of “soft” skills. Specifically, they must be aware of the extent to which employers value social and aesthetic abilities [13].

Since 2012, there has been an enhanced interest of researchers in aesthetic labor, especially after 2017 (Table 2). The research interest has largely been around the emotional aspects of aesthetic labor and the relationship between gender and aesthetic labor. Most of the research on aesthetic labor has been conducted in the service industry, particularly retail. Today's aesthetics of labor research is multifaceted and evolving, as indicated by our keyword clusters. The research so far on aesthetic labor highlights the intersections of aesthetic labor with consumption, emotional demands, and gender inequalities in the retail sector. Also, discrimination challenges, emphasizing the toll of appearance-based hiring and the commodification of emotional output in the service industries, have been explored by researchers. The complexity of gender norms, such as male workers in traditionally female-oriented roles, has also been explored by researchers. Notwithstanding these insights, significant research potential lies ahead, from the interplay of aesthetic labor with personal and socio-cultural identities to its increasing impact on educational frameworks and the rapidly expanding digital domain.

The research intended to answer some important questions. The answer to these questions is as below:

Q1. What are the most influential articles on the ‘aesthetic labor’?

A study by Witz et al. [18] received the most number of citations. The publication focuses on the ways in which aesthetic labor is used by organizations to create a certain image or brand. In terms of citations, this paper is followed by a study by Warhurst and Nickson [38], which highlights the challenges faced by employees who engage in aesthetic labor in retail and hospitality and calls for greater recognition and value for this type of work.

Q2. How is the spread of research over the years?

The first paper on aesthetic labor (in the Scopus database) was published in 1980. The next paper appeared in 2000. For the early decade of the 21^st century, i.e., 2000-2010, a total of 28 papers were published. From 2001-2021, 136 papers were published, indicating a growth rate of 385%. The research in said area gained momentum after 2012.

Q3. What are leading sources and countries as far as publications on ‘aesthetic labor’ are concerned?

Work, Employment, and Society is the leading source for publications in the concerned area, followed by Economic and Industrial Democracy and Gender, Work and Organization (by number of publications). The United Kingdom is the leading country for publication in the concerned areas, followed by the United States. UK and USA combined have more than 59% of total publications.

Q4. What are emerging themes in the area of ‘aesthetic labor’?

Emerging themes have been found by studying the co-occurrence of keywords.

The blue cluster focuses on aesthetic labor and its relationship to consumption, emotional labor, and gender inequality in the retail industry. Service industry workers, especially those who interact with customers, must present themselves in a certain way and manage emotions to create a positive experience, leading to stress and burnout, particularly for women. This interlinked concept highlights the need for fair appearance standards and support for employees.

The green cluster focuses on the intersectionality of discrimination in aesthetic labor, specifically related to gender and race. Appearance-based recruitment and selection practices negatively affect worker well-being and job satisfaction in service industries. The cluster also highlights the challenges faced by workers who must perform emotional and aesthetic labor, leading to emotional exhaustion and burnout. Finally, it discusses the commodification of workers and their emotions in industries that heavily rely on aesthetic labor.

The red cluster focuses on the gendered aspects of aesthetic labor, with a specific focus on male workers in traditionally feminine industries. The papers discuss how the use of physical appearance to create a brand identity can reinforce gender norms and lead to feelings of vulnerability and objectification. The cluster also examines how industries adapt to appeal to male customers and the implications of this for workers in terms of the gendered nature of aesthetic labor.

How aesthetic labor intervenes with personal identity in cultural and social contexts is an important area that can be explored further. Holla, S [61]. established a relationship between the said variables, but there is not much research available in this context. Another important area to explore further is the role of sexual orientation in performing aesthetic labor. One research contends that understanding how male hairdressers negotiate their gender identities and perform heterosexual aesthetics can shed light on larger cultural expectations regarding gender and sexuality [54]. Aesthetic labor has largely been associated with the female gender, but males are also increasingly becoming part of it, especially in the modelling industry [53]. There is a need for additional research on the intersection of gender, labor, and aesthetics in the fashion industry. Although aesthetic labor has progressively demonstrated its social and economic value to the labor market, little research has been conducted on the relationship and practise of aesthetic labor in technical and vocational education. This remains an area to explore further. The education system and the significance it ascribes to aesthetic labor constitutes another subject for investigation. Another crucial area of research is to understand how aesthetic labor is perceived and performed in the context of social media, particularly photo and video-sharing platforms.

Addressing the present knowledge gaps regarding labor aesthetics could significantly expand our comprehensive understanding of the subject. By delving into how aesthetic labor intersects with personal identity and socio-cultural contexts, we can unravel the intricacies of how cultural values and personal experiences shape aesthetic labor practices. Investigating the part that sexual orientation plays, particularly with regard to male involvement in areas traditionally dominated by women, including the modelling sector, sheds light on the transformative character of gender functions and expectations within the realm of aesthetic labor. By examining the nexus of gender, work, and beauty standards, we gain a deeper insight into how society's transformations shape the fashion industry. In addition, by understanding the role of aesthetic labor in technical and vocational education, we can discern its influence on educational curriculums, potentially leading to more relevant training programs and enhanced career pathways. Finally, exploring the realm of aesthetic work in the modern digital landscape, especially on social media visual platforms, will both highlight its current relevance and predict its future path. Addressing these areas will thus deepen our comprehension of aesthetic labor, making it more comprehensive, contemporary, and contextually relevant.

This study is helpful in studying the evolution of research on aesthetic labor. The study presents a comprehensive review of the literature on aesthetic labor; thus, those who intend to explore the topic further can gauge a comprehensive understanding of the concept and how it has evolved over the years. This study will serve as a base on which future research on aesthetic labor can be established.

By mapping existing literature, identifying emerging themes, highlighting frequently cited works, and identifying research gaps, this paper will inspire new studies, ensuring they are based on solid foundational work while also breaking new ground. Moreover, this study explores influential authors, journals, themes and countries, allowing newer researchers to understand the landscape, connect with leaders, and identify potential collaboration opportunities. By understanding citation patterns and keyword co-occurrences, this study offers a bird's eye view of the research terrain, ensuring that upcoming studies are both innovative and contextually relevant.

The scope of this study is limited only to publications in the Scopus database. Publications in other databases, e.g., Web of Science, can be studied to gain a deeper understanding of the area of research. Furthermore, the publications were restricted to the fields of social sciences, business, management, and accounting and psychology. The scope of research can be extended by removing these constraints. Another area that has not been explored in this study is exploring the trends in which the scholars in this field collaborate. The same can be explored by performing a co-authorship analysis. This may also uncover the benefits that such collaborations bring to the development of this field of study.