The Cognitive and Motivational Benefits of Gamification in English Language Learning: A Systematic Review

2.1. Study Design

This study conducted a systematic review to combine and analyze research on the cognitive benefits of gamification in learning English, focusing on psycholinguistics. This review aims to critically analyze the existing literature, focusing on how gamification influences cognitive processes, such as working memory, attention, and processing speed within English language instruction. This approach follows a structured process for selecting and reviewing studies, ensuring the work is evident, reliable, and can be repeated by others.

2.2. Eligibility Criteria

The inclusion criteria were carefully established to ensure the selection of studies that provide substantial and reliable contributions to understanding the cognitive benefits of gamification in English language learning. The criteria identified empirical and theoretical research with explicit links to psycholinguistic theories or mechanisms, such as working memory, attention, and processing speed. Moreover, only recent and peer-reviewed studies were included to maintain academic rigour and ensure the relevance of the findings.

2.3. Search Strategy

A systematic search was conducted using three major academic databases, Scopus, Web of Science, and ERIC, to identify studies examining the cognitive benefits of gamification in English language learning. These databases were selected due to their rigorous indexing standards, comprehensive coverage of peer-reviewed research, and relevance to education, cognitive science, and language learning. The inclusion of ERIC enhanced the search scope by incorporating education-focused studies, ensuring a more robust and methodologically sound review. This selection strategy maintained methodological consistency and ensured comprehensive literature retrieval, minimizing the risk of omission. While additional databases such as ProQuest and Google Scholar were considered, Scopus, Web of Science, and ERIC were prioritized for their high indexing reliability, disciplinary relevance, and contribution to a well-structured systematic review.

The search employed various key terms to capture the research linking gamification with cognitive processes and English language learning. These included expressions such as “Gamification and language learning,” “Cognitive benefits and gamification,” “Psycholinguistics and gamified learning,” and “Gamification and English language teaching.” The combination of these terms was intended to target studies that have focused on the impact of gamification on cognitive functions, including memory and attention, within the context of English language learning. Boolean operators, such as “and,” were used to ensure that the results included only studies that addressed these specific areas.

To narrow the search, only articles published between 2020 and 2024 were considered to capture the latest research. Only peer-reviewed scholarly articles were considered to maintain academic rigour. Owing to the emphasis on English language learning, the review was limited to publications in English. Furthermore, to focus on the cognitive aspects of learning, studies in psycholinguistics, cognitive psychology, and language education were selected based on their relevance. Following the initial search, a screening process involved examining the titles and abstracts of the studies to eliminate those that did not meet the established criteria. Studies that did not concentrate on English language learning or were unrelated to cognitive functions, such as memory and attention, were excluded. For potentially relevant studies, full-text reviews were conducted to ensure alignment with the review objectives.

During the review, emphasis was placed on studies that provided empirical evidence related to cognitive processes in English-language learning. The focus was on research on gamification and its impact on cognitive aspects such as working memory, attention, and processing speed. Care was taken to select studies with clear connections to the psycholinguistic theories or mechanisms. Studies that did not meet these criteria or focused on languages other than English were not included in the final selection.

Ultimately, 30 studies that fulfilled all established criteria were selected out of 49. These studies constitute the foundation of our review, providing a basis for examining the cognitive benefits of gamification in English language learning from a psycholinguistic perspective. Fig. (1) presents the PRISMA flow diagram, outlining the study selection process in detail.

2.4. Data Extraction

Once the 30 studies were selected, we carefully extracted key information from each one. This approach was essential for gathering data on how gamification supports cognitive benefits in learning English. We focused on gathering the most critical details from each study to ensure a thorough analysis and draw meaningful conclusions (Appendix).

For each study, the following key data points were collected:

2.5. Quality Assessment

A structured quality evaluation was conducted for each of the 30 selected studies to assess the reliability and validity of the results. This process evaluated methodological rigour, consistency, and relevance in exploring the cognitive benefits of gamification in English language learning. Studies were rated based on predefined criteria, including research design, sample characteristics, and measurement tools. Each study was classified into three categories—robust, moderate, or limited—reflecting the methodological strength of its approach.

Our quality check followed a transparent, step-by-step process examining a few crucial areas.

2.6. Data Synthesis

Following the collection and evaluation of the selected studies, the subsequent phase involved analyzing the findings to identify common patterns and insights regarding the cognitive benefits of gamification in English language learning. The goal was to consolidate the key findings and explain how gamification affects cognitive processes such as memory, attention, and problem-solving. To facilitate interpretation, the studies were grouped based on the cognitive processes they examined, including memory, attention, and processing speed. This categorization allowed for an effective comparison of methods and results across different studies. Moreover, the analysis focused on specific gamification elements, such as points, rewards, and levels, to determine their impact on cognitive functions.

Due to the methodological heterogeneity across the selected studies, including variations in participant characteristics, research designs, and reported outcomes, conducting a meta-analysis or reporting effect sizes was not feasible. Instead, a narrative synthesis approach was adopted to provide a structured and systematic exploration of patterns and trends. This approach facilitates a qualitative understanding of how different game elements influence cognitive and motivational processes, enabling the identification of recurring themes and key mechanisms underlying gamification’s effectiveness.

3.1. Study Characteristics Overview

In this section, we look at the research methods, participant details, and study settings from the 30 papers that investigate gamification in EFL instruction. The studies cover a range of educational environments, research methods, and student groups, from elementary to university-level education. Most of the analyzed studies employed quasi-experimental designs and integrated both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. For example, Roseni and Muho [26] examined the role of gamification and interactive learning platforms in improving student engagement and language proficiency among university learners. Through a quantitative analysis of 59 students studying English and German, the study demonstrated that gamified elements effectively boost motivation and facilitate language acquisition. These findings align closely with the study’s focus, outlining the value of technology-driven approaches in enhancing engagement and achieving better learning outcomes in English language education. Zhang et al. [27] investigated the integration of gamification into blended learning and its impact on Chinese students’ engagement and foreign language anxiety. The study, employing mixed methods, demonstrated that gamified strategies significantly improved student engagement and reduced anxiety levels. These findings accentuate the role of gamification in addressing emotional and cognitive challenges in language learning, contributing valuable insights into enhancing learning outcomes within EFL contexts.

The studies demonstrated a wide variation in sample sizes, reflecting the diverse research approaches adopted. Smaller-scale studies, such as Al-Jamili et al. [28] with approximately 60 participants and Roseni and Muho [26] with 59 participants, focused on aspects like speaking skills and language engagement. In contrast, other studies involved larger participant groups to examine broader outcomes. Most participants were from non-English-speaking countries, particularly regions such as South Korea, China, Iran, and Southeast Asia, showing the widespread global interest in leveraging gamification for English language learning.

Most of the research occurred in traditional settings like universities and schools, where gamification was part of the regular curriculum. Some studies looked at gamification in different contexts: Matviienko et al. [29] studied the integration of gamification into teacher education programs in Ukraine, showcasing its dual benefits: improving English language proficiency and cultivating vital teaching skills. Through a mixed-methods approach, Matviienko et al. reveal how gamified environments inspire learner motivation while empowering future teachers to design dynamic and engaging classrooms. Santos et al. [30] focused on its effects on university-level engagement and language proficiency. Studies such as Pai et al. [31] investigated the role of gamification in reducing English-speaking anxiety among elementary students. Through experimental methods, the research identified a significant negative correlation between gamification and speaking anxiety, alongside improvements in student confidence and motivation. The findings reveal the potential of interactive learning strategies to alleviate language anxiety and enhance learner outcomes.

The gamification components studied included points, badges, quizzes, and progress-tracking systems. For example, Panmei and Waluyo [32] investigated how mobile applications like Quizizz supported vocabulary acquisition. Hong et al. [33] examined how gamifying grammar-based questions reduced student anxiety and increased curiosity. The research also illustrated important cognitive and emotional aspects. For instance, Chen et al. [34] showed that gamification can help reduce language learning anxiety and manage cognitive load, while Casanova-Mata [35] focused on boosting motivation and class participation.

The combined research suggests that gamification can enhance EFL learning, particularly vocabulary, speaking, and listening. Moreover, gamification consistently enhances learner engagement, motivation, and emotional well-being, supporting its growing utilization as an effective educational tool.

3.2. Cognitive Processes Impacted by Gamification

3.3. The Influence of Gamification Elements on Cognitive and Learning Outcomes

This section investigates the influence of diverse gamification components and their particular effects on cognitive processes and educational outcomes. The analyzed research suggests that the efficacy of gamification strategies often depends on how these fundamental elements, including points, rewards, levels, and leaderboards, are designed and implemented.

Among the various gamification elements examined, points and rewards have emerged as the most frequently employed and consistently associated with enhanced motivation, engagement, and information retention [27, 35]. Roseni and Muho [26] confirmed that the use of gamified elements, including interactive platforms, significantly enhanced student motivation and engagement. This heightened engagement led to improved learning outcomes, particularly in language proficiency, showcasing the effectiveness of gamification in supporting cognitive and learning processes. In the same way, Zhang et al. [27] illustrated how gamified elements in blended learning positively influence cognitive and learning outcomes by fostering higher engagement and alleviating foreign language anxiety, thereby enhancing students’ overall language acquisition experience. This aligns with other studies that show the positive impact of rewards and badges on motivation and task completion in various EFL contexts [14, 30].

Panmei and Waluyo [32] also found that gamified vocabulary applications foster participation and increase learner autonomy; however, the resulting learning outcomes are not always superior to those achieved through traditional methods. Likewise, Arsyad et al. [41] demonstrated that while the integration of gamification into flipped learning environments improved motivation, it did not consistently result in better academic performance than conventional approaches. These findings suggest that while rewards are effective in fostering motivation and engagement, they may not always lead to significant improvements in learning outcomes [31].

However, the benefits of points and rewards are not universally sustained. Matviienko et al. [29] found that gamified teacher education programs enhance English proficiency and equip future teachers with innovative strategies, fostering cognitive engagement and improved learning outcomes. Similarly, Zhang et al. [27] disclosed that while gamified strategies effectively enhanced engagement and reduced foreign language anxiety, these benefits required ongoing adaptation and variation to remain effective. Such findings reveal the importance of continuously evolving reward systems to sustain long-term engagement [40, 42].

Including level and progress tracking in gamified learning environments has also demonstrated efficacy in maintaining attention and promoting task completion [39, 43-45]. Al-Sabbagh [39] observed that students exhibited increased engagement and motivation when they could visually monitor their progress through levels, resulting in accelerated acquisition of language skills, particularly in listening and speaking. These findings were corroborated by Pai et al. [31] and Phuong [44], who noted that progress tracking enables learners to establish clear objectives, maintain focus, and achieve higher completion rates, ultimately improving material retention.

Furthermore, Daliranfirouz et al. [43] found that gamified flipped classrooms significantly improved grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension among 327 participants, demonstrating notable enhancements in cognitive and learning outcomes. Nevertheless, Phuong [44] and Wen [42] cautioned that while progress tracking initially enhances motivation, it can also induce stress and anxiety, particularly in students who experience difficulty in keeping pace with their peers. This suggests that levels and tracking mechanisms can enhance learning, but they should be implemented judiciously to avoid creating undue emotional pressure [35].

Leaderboards, which introduce an element of competition by ranking students based on their performance, have yielded mixed outcomes across studies. Several studies have found that leaderboards significantly enhance motivation and focus among high-performance students [35]. Hong et al. [33] reported that leaderboards foster a competitive spirit, motivating students to practice more frequently and improve their grammar and writing skills. Similarly, Casanova-Mata [35] and Chen and Zhao [40] observed that students felt compelled to improve their performance when their rankings were visible on a leaderboard, which increased classroom engagement.

The competitive aspect of leaderboards, while motivating for some learners, has been linked to increased anxiety and negative emotional experiences, particularly among lower-performing students. Ahmed et al. [36] and Matviienko et al. [29] observed that while leaderboards can drive engagement, they may also intensify feelings of inadequacy, especially when the competition becomes overly intense. Zhao and McClure [15] further observed that while gamification, including leaderboards, can reduce anxiety and enhance motivation for some students, overly competitive environments can negate these benefits, leading to higher stress levels. These findings suggest that while leaderboards can be practical tools for enhancing performance, they should be implemented cautiously to promote healthy competition without causing emotional distress [31, 46].

The efficacy of gamification elements, including point systems, incentives, stage progression, achievement monitoring, and competitive rankings, largely depends on their implementation, educational context, and individual student characteristics. While these features generally enhance motivation, engagement, and cognitive development, they may also result in unintended negative consequences such as increased anxiety, stress, or diminished efficacy over time. For instance, Chen et al. [34] pointed out that poorly executed gamification approaches could potentially overwhelm students cognitively or exacerbate their anxiety. Consequently, the successful integration of gamification into language instruction necessitates meticulous planning and a good understanding of learners’ needs to maximize potential benefits while mitigating adverse effects.

3.4. Emotional and Behavioral Outcomes in Gamified Learning

This section examines the emotional and behavioural impacts of gamification on language learning, as reported across various studies. The design and context of the gamified elements employed significantly influenced the following outcomes: motivation, engagement, anxiety, and emotional regulation.

3.5. Cognitive Load and Learning Efficiency

This section examines the relationship between gamification and cognitive load and its influence on learning efficiency in language acquisition. Cognitive load refers to the mental effort required to process new information, and the design of gamified learning environments can either alleviate or exacerbate this load depending on the complexity of game mechanics and their alignment with learning objectives.

Several studies have studied the relationship between gamification and cognitive load in the educational setting. Adrefiza [47] demonstrated that gamification can simplify complex language tasks, reducing extraneous cognitive load and allowing students to concentrate more effectively on language retention. Also, Chen and Zhao [40] observed that gamification elements, such as points and progress tracking, helped streamline tasks and mitigate cognitive strain by organizing the learning process. However, they also noted that overly intricate game mechanics could elevate the intrinsic cognitive load, particularly for learners unfamiliar with the gaming platform or educational content. Supporting these findings, Al-Jamili et al. [28] reported that simplifying gamified tasks in a speaking proficiency intervention reduced mental fatigue and fostered sustained engagement. Conversely, Panmei and Waluyo [32] found no significant difference in cognitive load between gamified and traditional vocabulary learning approaches, indicating that the cognitive benefits of gamification may not be universally applicable and may largely depend on the quality and design of gamified tasks.

Regarding learning efficiency, defined as the speed and effectiveness with which students acquire language skills, findings varied across the reviewed studies. Roseni and Muho [26] asserted that gamified elements, integrated within interactive learning platforms, significantly enhance motivation and facilitate language acquisition. Their findings suggest that these elements effectively manage the cognitive load by maintaining learner engagement, enabling a more focused and efficient approach to language learning tasks. Similarly, Gao and Pan [18] noted that gamification enhances vocabulary acquisition speed when integrated into digital learning platforms. Al-Sabbagh [39] also reported that gamification elements such as progress tracking and level-based mechanics improved students’ focus, leading to faster listening and speaking skills learning compared to traditional, non-gamified environments. However, Arsyad et al. [41] noted that while gamification increased learner motivation, it did not always translate into superior academic performance, particularly in TOEFL assessments. This suggests that heightened engagement does not necessarily equate to improved learning efficiency.

Numerous studies have accentuated the impact of gamification on cognitive load and learning efficiency. Pai et al. [31] noted that incorporating multiple game elements simultaneously may overwhelm learners, especially those less experienced with digital platforms, increasing cognitive load. Likewise, Zhang et al. [27] observed that incorporating gamification into blended learning environments eased foreign language anxiety and fostered greater student engagement. Reducing emotional barriers facilitated a more streamlined learning process, enabling learners to allocate cognitive resources more effectively toward mastering language skills. Luo [14] also revealed that complex game mechanics can elevate the intrinsic cognitive load, especially for learners with lower proficiency levels, impeding overall learning progress.

Gamification has a manifold impact on cognitive load and learning efficiency. Well-designed gamified environments, as described by Santos et al. [30], can reduce the cognitive load by structuring tasks more effectively and enhancing student engagement. However, Pai et al. [31] found that incorporating gamified elements in English-speaking activities helped reduce the cognitive strain associated with speaking anxiety, enabling students to focus more efficiently on language tasks and boosting their confidence and motivation. To maximize the benefits of gamification, teachers must ensure that game mechanics align closely with educational objectives, while regularly updating and diversifying game elements to mitigate cognitive fatigue and disengagement. Future research should focus on refining gamification strategies to balance managing cognitive load and sustaining long-term learning efficiency, as acknowledged by several studies [18, 27, 31, 46].

3.6. Long-term Retention and Transfer of Learning

This section examines the influence of gamification on long-term information retention and the capacity to apply acquired skills in diverse contexts. The efficacy of gamification in achieving these outcomes is mainly contingent on the design and alignment of game elements with educational objectives.

Research has indicated that gamification positively affects long-term retention, particularly in language learning. Wen [42] found that gamified methods in elementary education resulted in significantly better vocabulary retention than conventional approaches. Al-Sabbagh [39] demonstrated that progress monitoring and reward systems helped maintain speaking and listening skills. Zhang et al. [27] revealed that incorporating gamified strategies into blended learning environments fostered sustained retention of language skills. By encouraging consistent engagement with interactive elements, the approach strengthened cognitive processing, enabling learners to apply their acquired skills in varied contexts over time effectively. Matviienko et al. [29] stressed that gamification in teacher education fosters the development of skills that can be transferred to real-world teaching, enabling teachers to create engaging environments that support long-term retention and language proficiency among learners. Pai et al. [31] revealed that gamified approaches not only reduced speaking anxiety but also fostered a sustained improvement in students’ confidence and motivation, which are essential for the long-term retention and application of language skills. Ahmed et al. [36] stated that the extent of student engagement with gamified tasks significantly influenced retention outcomes. Their research on idiomatic language learning showed that students who interacted more deeply with game mechanics exhibited better long-term retention, revealing the importance of continued involvement in maximizing retention benefits.

The ability to apply learned skills to new contexts is another crucial outcome of gamified learning environments. Casanova-Mata [35] discovered that incorporating team-based competitive strategies within gamification considerably improved students’ capacity to use communication skills in various settings, such as group discussions and presentations. This finding indicates that gamification can facilitate the transfer of social and communication skills beyond the immediate learning context. On the other hand, Panmei and Waluyo [32] indicated that while gamification enhances vocabulary retention, it is less effective in promoting vocabulary knowledge in other language domains, such as reading and writing. This accentuates the necessity of carefully aligning gamified activities with broader educational objectives to maximize skill transferability. Similarly, Zhao et al. [45] observed that although gamified virtual reality systems improved students’ vocabulary and speaking skills, these enhancements were not consistently evident in formal assessment contexts such as written examinations. This suggests the need to develop gamification designs that support skill transfer across various learning environments.

While gamification offers significant advantages, its effectiveness in promoting long-term retention and learning transfer is not without challenges. Pai et al. [31] warned that an excessive focus on immediate rewards, such as points and badges, might undermine the ability of gamified tasks to encourage deeper cognitive engagement and sustained knowledge transfer. Similarly, Cruz et al. [27] suggested that gamified platforms may fail to activate the critical cognitive processes necessary for effective learning transfer without adequate support. Moreover, Luo [34] claimed that poorly conceived game mechanics can increase cognitive load, particularly for less proficient learners, thereby hindering retention and knowledge transfer. To address these challenges, gamification must be meticulously tailored to address learners’ needs and to ensure alignment with educational objectives.

Put briefly, while gamification shows promise in enhancing long-term retention and facilitating learning transfer, its efficacy heavily depends on thoughtful design and regular updates to sustain student engagement. Teachers should focus on aligning game mechanics with broader learning goals and creating opportunities for deep cognitive engagement. Future studies should refine gamification strategies to balance retention and learning transfers across diverse educational settings.

3.7. Challenges and Limitations of Gamified Learning

Despite the well-documented advantages of gamification in language learning, such as improved motivation, engagement, and retention, several inherent challenges and limitations undermine its overall effectiveness. These issues reveal the critical need for careful design, thoughtful implementation, and the sustained maintenance of gamified learning environments to ensure long-term success.

A significant challenge lies in maintaining long-term engagement, as the initial increase in motivation often diminishes over time. Matviienko et al. [29] disclosed challenges in gamification, such as limited technological resources and the need for teacher training, confirming the importance of maintaining engagement and avoiding cognitive overload. Wen [42] also confirmed this trend in primary education, noting that the enthusiasm surrounding gamification tends to decrease after the novelty wears off. To address this, Gao and Pan [18] recommended regularly refreshing game elements and incorporating personalized learning paths to sustain engagement. However, this requires continuous innovation and substantial resources, raising concerns about gamified learning environments’ practical sustainability.

Overemphasis on competition is another challenge that can lead to mixed outcomes for learners. Ahmed et al. [36] found that competitive features like leaderboards motivated high-achieving students and heightened anxiety and stress among lower-performing students. Similarly, Hong et al. [33] observed that competition, particularly in grammar-learning tasks, can overshadow educational objectives by forcing students to outperform their peers. In contrast, Casanova-Mata [35] demonstrated that integrating team-based competition fostered collaboration and improved communication skills, suggesting that matching competition and cooperation may be more effective in accommodating diverse learners.

Technical barriers and usability challenges remain critical obstacles in gamified learning environments. Daliranfirouz et al. [43] identified that while gamified flipped classrooms enhanced learning outcomes, they introduced significant workload challenges for both teachers and students, reflecting the complexities of implementing gamified strategies in language instruction. In contrast, Tao and Zou [37] demonstrated that intuitive platforms like Kahoot effectively boosted student engagement by reducing technical hurdles. These findings disclose the need for user-friendly and accessible gamification tools that prioritize functionality over unnecessary complexity.

The sustainability of gamification’s benefits over time poses a significant challenge. Matviienko et al. [29] observed that the initial gains in retention and learning efficiency tended to wane as students acclimated to the game mechanics, disclosing the need for evolving strategies to maintain long-term effectiveness. Arsyad et al. [41] similarly observed that while gamification initially boosted motivation in TOEFL preparation courses, its long-term impact on academic performance plateaued. To address this issue, Luo [14] proposed incorporating dynamic and evolving game mechanics to maintain interest. However, this approach can be resource-intensive and not feasible for all educational institutions.

Furthermore, the varying impact of gamified learning environments on different learner types indicates the need for more adaptive approaches. Phuong [44] found that students with higher technological proficiency adapted well to gamification and demonstrated increased engagement and improved outcomes. In contrast, Kazazoğlu [48] reported that students with lower technological literacy, or those who preferred traditional learning methods, struggled to adapt, resulting in disengagement. Almusharraf [49] also noted that while tools like Kahoot boosted engagement in online EFL classrooms during the COVID-19 pandemic, not all students benefited equally, with some encountering difficulties adjusting to the gamified format. These findings suggest that gamified environments must be tailored to meet students’ diverse needs, learning preferences, and technological proficiency.

To sum up, while gamification is promising for enhancing language learning through increased motivation, engagement, and retention, its long-term success depends on overcoming several key challenges. Effective gamification requires thoughtful design, continuous updates, and a balance between competitive and collaborative elements to sustain engagement and foster positive learning outcomes.

4.1. Discussion of Research Question 1

• What are the empirically supported cognitive benefits of gamification on working memory and attention among English language learners?

Multiple studies show the significant cognitive benefits of gamification for English language learners, particularly in enhancing working memory and attention. Across various educational contexts, gamified elements such as points, rewards, and progress tracking have consistently been shown to improve learners’ cognitive focus and memory retention [39, 27]. These mechanisms facilitate attentional control and reinforce working memory, enabling learners to retain information more effectively and engage deeply with language tasks.

For example, Zhang et al. [27] demonstrated that gamified learning environments substantially enhance attention in English language learners by fostering sustained focus and task engagement through blended learning strategies. Similarly, Al-Sabbagh [39] reported that integrating progress tracking and competitive elements into language-learning activities boosts the retention of listening and speaking skills. These findings reveal how gamified strategies sustain cognitive engagement, a critical factor in effective language acquisition.

Although the cognitive advantages of gamification are well-established, their longevity may vary. Research by Matviienko et al. [29] and Pai et al. [31] indicates that the initial improvements in engagement and focus tend to wane as students become accustomed to the game-like elements. Cognitive Load Theory explains these findings by showing how gamification reduces extraneous cognitive load through structured and manageable tasks. Features such as rewards and immediate feedback allow learners to focus cognitive resources on essential language tasks like vocabulary acquisition and grammar application, minimizing distractions [20, 36]. Likewise, Flow Theory upholds gamification’s role in maintaining optimal engagement by balancing task difficulty with learner skill levels. Progressive challenges and real-time rewards foster sustained focus and immersion, as noted by Tao and Zou [37].

Matviienko et al. [29] asserted that gamification supports working memory and attention by immersing learners in dynamic and interactive activities, reinforcing their focus on language tasks. Similarly, Pai et al. [31] found that gamified strategies positively influenced learners’ focus and confidence during English-speaking activities, indicating the role of gamification in improving attentional control and reducing anxiety.

The observed improvements in working memory and attention align with cognitive load theory [20], which posits that reducing extraneous cognitive load in educational tasks allows learners to allocate more resources to processing and retaining information. In gamified environments, rewards and progress tracking simplify complex tasks, minimize distractions, and promote sustained cognitive engagement [36, 40]. These structured environments optimize working memory performance, ensuring learners remain focused on their language-learning objectives.

Tao and Zou [37] provided further insights into gamification’s impact on attention, showing that interactive elements such as quizzes and leaderboards provide immediate feedback, which helps sustain students’ focus on learning tasks. These elements maintain engagement and enhance attentional control by reducing distractions that might otherwise interfere with learners’ ability to concentrate on language tasks.

Nevertheless, maintaining long-term cognitive improvements remains a significant hurdle. Studies by Matviienko et al. [29] and Pai et al. [31] have noted that the repeated use of game-like elements may result in diminishing effectiveness, ultimately leading to a stagnation in cognitive advancement. To address this issue, gamification designs should incorporate adaptable mechanics that evolve with learner progress, as Flow Theory suggests. Dynamic game features such as adjustable difficulty levels and periodic updates can help sustain engagement and support ongoing cognitive development. Without continuous evolution in design, gamified learning environments risk losing their effectiveness, as learners may disengage, and the initial cognitive gains could be lost.

To conclude, gamification presents an effective strategy for boosting working memory and attention among English language students. The incorporation of elements such as points, rewards, and progress monitoring enhances concentration on tasks and aids in language retention. Nevertheless, to maintain these advantages over time, it is crucial to continuously innovate gamification techniques, ensuring that learners remain captivated and driven throughout their language learning journey. Incorporating theoretical frameworks like Cognitive Load Theory and Flow Theory provides a deeper understanding of how gamification optimizes cognitive engagement while stressing the need for adaptive and evolving designs to maintain long-term benefits.

4.2. Discussion of Research Question 2

• How does gamification facilitate measurable improvements in memory retention and attentional control among English language learners?

The analysis of the 30 reviewed studies offers comprehensive insights into how gamification enhances memory retention and attentional control among English language learners. These cognitive benefits stem from the strategic incorporation of gamified mechanics, including rewards, real-time feedback, and progress tracking, which sustain motivation and promote deeper cognitive engagement.

A recurring theme across the studies is the positive impact of gamification on memory retention, particularly in vocabulary acquisition and the development of broader language skills. Wen [42] and Panmei and Waluyo [32] demonstrated that learners using gamified tools, such as Quizizz, achieved significantly higher vocabulary retention rates compared to those using traditional methods. Similarly, Kazazoğlu [48] found that combining repetition, immediate feedback, and competitive settings significantly enhanced learners’ ability to recall vocabulary over time. These findings endorse the effectiveness of gamification in reinforcing memory through repeated exposure and active engagement.

Casanova-Mata [35] further revealed the role of immersive and interactive game-based strategies, such as ‘Among Us’ games, in embedding learning tasks within engaging contexts. This approach required learners to continually apply and recall vocabulary during gameplay, promoting long-term retention. Collaborative elements also emerged as crucial, as Santos et al. [30] noted that students involved in team-based competitions retained more information than those learning individually.

Despite its benefits, gamification’s impact on memory retention has limitations. Matviienko et al. [29] observed that dynamic and interactive gamified activities significantly bolstered memory retention and attentional control. However, they also pointed out that learners’ sustained engagement and memory retention depend on the novelty and evolution of game mechanics. Ahmed et al. [36] similarly stated that the retention of idiomatic knowledge varied with learners’ sustained interest, further stressing the importance of adaptive and engaging game design.

In addition to memory retention, gamification markedly enhances attentional control, enabling learners to maintain focus on language tasks. Tao and Zou [37] found that platforms like Kahoot! helped students sustain focus through real-time feedback, interactive elements, and competitive features. Santos et al. [30] also noted improved student focus when rewards and progress tracking were integrated into learning activities, enhancing both short-term attention and long-term engagement.

Zhang et al. [27] corroborated these findings, showing that incorporating gamified elements into blended learning environments strengthened cognitive focus and improved material retention. Similarly, Wen [42] demonstrated that progress tracking and rewards encouraged sustained attention during vocabulary learning, enabling better processing and retention of information.

However, maintaining attentional improvements over time presents challenges. Matviienko et al. [29] and Pai et al. [31] found that attentional gains diminished as learners became accustomed to game mechanics, confirming the need for innovative and evolving designs. Pai et al. [31] also noted that gamification reduced speaking anxiety and boosted confidence, facilitating attentional control and memory retention in English language tasks. To sustain these benefits, Phuong [44] advocated for gamified systems that prioritize adaptability and inclusivity, ensuring they meet diverse learner preferences and technological proficiencies.

The observed cognitive benefits align with cognitive load theory [20], which posits that reducing extraneous cognitive load enables learners to focus on essential information, enhancing retention and attentional control. Structured tasks, real-time feedback, and rewards in gamified environments reduce distractions, allowing learners to concentrate on crucial language tasks such as vocabulary acquisition and grammar application [27, 42]. Flow Theory [50] further supports these findings, suggesting that learners achieve optimal focus and engagement when tasks align with their abilities. By offering progression systems and rewards that match skill levels, gamified environments create a state of flow that sustains cognitive engagement and attentional control [48, 30].

Despite its advantages, gamification’s long-term efficacy depends on dynamic and innovative designs. Matviienko et al. [29] cautioned that reliance on repetitive mechanics risks disengagement over time. Luo [46] and Santos et al. [30] declared the importance of introducing evolving challenges and tasks to maintain cognitive stimulation and engagement. Evidence confirms that gamification significantly enhances memory retention and attentional control among English language learners. However, to sustain these benefits, regular updates and innovations in game design are essential to keep learners motivated and engaged over time.

4.3. Discussion of Research Question 3

• What cognitive and motivational mechanisms underpin the enhancement driven by gamification in English language learning?

The analysis of the 30 reviewed studies provides a nuanced understanding of the cognitive and motivational mechanisms that drive the efficacy of gamification in English language learning. These mechanisms include cognitive engagement, attentional control, memory retention, intrinsic and social motivation, emotional investment, and the development of higher-order thinking skills—all crucial for creating sustainable and impactful gamified learning environments.

One of the most prominent cognitive mechanisms is the enhancement of memory retention. Gamified platforms, such as Quizizz [32, 42], employ repetition, progress tracking, and immediate feedback to strengthen learners’ capacity to store and retrieve information effectively. Cognitive Load Theory explains that these features minimize extraneous cognitive load, allowing learners to focus their mental resources on essential tasks like vocabulary acquisition and language skill development. By organizing tasks and eliminating distractions, gamification facilitates the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information, promoting sustained long-term memory retention [20].

Immersive and interactive gamified environments further enhance cognitive processing. Casanova-Mata [35] demonstrated how such environments compel learners to actively apply and reinforce new language concepts through repeated, meaningful exposure. This continuous engagement with language structures in dynamic contexts helps embed knowledge, making it more readily accessible for future use. Similarly, Tao and Zou [37] and Santos et al. [30] found that through features like real-time feedback and competitive elements, gamified platforms effectively sustain learners’ focus, fostering prolonged attentional control. These findings align with Flow Theory [50], which posits that learners achieve optimal focus when tasks balance their skill level with appropriate challenges. In gamified environments, progression systems and rewards are tailored to match learners’ abilities, ensuring consistent cognitive engagement.

Gamification also cultivates higher-order cognitive skills such as problem-solving and critical thinking. Kazazoğlu [48] showcased how gamified tasks require learners to navigate complex language structures, analyze information, and apply language rules in realistic scenarios. These tasks foster deeper cognitive involvement, equipping learners to handle nuanced language challenges more effectively.

On the motivational front, gamification significantly enhances intrinsic motivation, a critical factor in maintaining sustained engagement. Zhang et al. [27] and Phuong [44] found that elements like points, badges, and levels provide tangible progress markers, appealing to learners’ intrinsic desire for mastery and achievement. This aligns with Self-Determination Theory, which acknowledges that learners’ intrinsic motivation is enhanced when their autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported. Gamified environments foster these needs by allowing learners to set goals, track progress, and engage in meaningful social interactions [51-53]. Moreover, Self-Efficacy Theory indicates the importance of learners’ confidence in completing tasks effectively, which increases when they perceive tangible progress and receive positive reinforcement. Gamified environments leverage these principles by fostering a sense of accomplishment and promoting self-directed learning [54].

Social and competitive factors significantly influence engagement in learning. Research by Hong et al. [33] and Ahmed et al. [36] indicates that features like multiplayer modes and leaderboards encourage both teamwork and friendly rivalry, inspiring learners to enhance their performance through peer comparison. Moreover, Pai et al. [31] showed that gamification techniques alleviate speaking anxiety and boost confidence, concentration, and ongoing participation among learners. Activity Theory provides a valuable framework for understanding these dynamics, accentuating the interconnectedness of learners, tools, and tasks. Within gamified environments, this theory pinpoints how tools like multiplayer modes and leaderboards mediate interactions and create a collaborative and motivating learning space. Activity Theory offers a lens to analyze how gamification promotes individual and collective learning outcomes by facilitating shared objectives and encouraging engagement through competition and teamwork [53].

Nevertheless, maintaining learner engagement becomes challenging as the novelty of gamified elements wears off. Initially, features like points, rewards, and leaderboards boost motivation, but research by Matviienko et al. [29] and Pai et al. [31] indicates that their effectiveness decreases as learners become familiar with them. To combat this issue, it is essential to implement dynamic and adaptive gamification designs. Regularly updating content, introducing evolving challenges, and creating personalized learning pathways can reignite interest and maintain motivation. Additionally, incorporating thematic changes or seasonal game modifications can offer fresh opportunities for engagement. These approaches align with Activity Theory, which emphasizes the dynamic interactions among learners, tools, and evolving tasks, thereby reinforcing sustained motivation and engagement throughout the learning process [53].

Emotional engagement is another integral factor. Rewards such as digital badges and points foster a sense of accomplishment and emotional investment, as noted by Al-Sabbagh [39] and Zhang et al. [27]. Anticipating these rewards strengthens learners’ emotional connections to their tasks, making them more likely to remain motivated and engaged. However, this emotional impact can wane over time as learners become accustomed to the rewards, underscoring the importance of regularly updating game elements to sustain engagement [36, 29].

Despite its benefits, gamification faces challenges in sustaining long-term engagement and cognitive gains. Static or repetitive game mechanics may lead to disengagement, as observed by Matviienko et al. [29] and Pai et al. [31]. To address this, Luo [14, 46] pointed out the need for evolving game designs that introduce novel challenges and adaptable tasks, ensuring ongoing cognitive stimulation and motivation. This dynamic approach prevents learners from losing interest and extends the positive effects of gamification beyond the initial engagement.

To summarize, the implementation of game-like elements enhances English language learning by leveraging cognitive and motivational processes, including better memory consolidation, increased focus, analytical reasoning, and self-driven learning. Nevertheless, to maintain these advantages long-term, updating and refining the gaming components continually is essential. Teachers must create flexible, dynamic, gamified learning environments that adapt to students’ evolving requirements, ensuring sustained engagement and cognitive development.